The conflict parties exercise extensive measures, depending on the situation. The extent of destruction is massive and of long duration. Latent conflict exists when values, issues or objectives are questioned with some identifiable and observable signs which occasion positional differences and clash of interest articulated as demands and claims.
Manifest conflict exists when tensions are present but are expressed by means below the threshold of violence such as quarrels, threats, warnings, intentional disobedience and non-compliance to directives, DOI: Crisis occurs when there is sporadic use of violence that causes damage to symbols, lives and property. Severe crisis involves repeated use of force in an organised way with preparations. War incorporates the use of force and violence with plans for sustainability and continuity in organised and systematic way.
Meanwhile, conflicts and crisis are essential aspects of management which determine its successes or failures Okotoni and Okotoni, The concept of management has various uses which could mean different things to different people in different contexts. Management could be used to refer to a field of study or academic discipline, authorities of an organisation or institution, or the art and process of organisational governance Ekundayo, ; Okotoni and Okotoni, In this context, management refers to the art and process of governing, running, administering organisations and institutions through designated authorities.
Following this line of thought, Sisk and William defined management as a process of coordinating all resources through planning, organising, leading and controlling in order to attain or achieve stated objectives which border.
Certainly, effective management does not just happen, but is brought about by individuals who possess the knowledge and skills to synchronise the actions of numerious people and channel those actions towards a common goal Duncan, Invariably, management consists of all organisational activities that involve formation of goals, attainment of the goals, appraisal of performances and the development of mechanisms that will ensure the success and the survival of the organisation within the social system Okotoni and Okotoni, As earlier noted, conflicts and crisis pervades all aspects of human activities such as the management of schools and they affect the accomplishment of the stated goals depending on the outcomes and how they are managed.
These classifications are largely rooted on management communication routes. Nonetheless, they are not unconnected with the classification of conflict forms based on intensity. A significant observation in the foregoing expositions is that irrespective of the forms and levels of conflicts and crisis anywhere and anytime, the bone of contention border on values status, power, and resources even though the specific object s may vary.
The Causes of Conflicts and Crisis Various explanations on the causes of conflicts and crisis in human society abound. Essentially, we have two broad theoretical explanations: the micro theories and the macro theories. The major assumption of the micro theories otherwise called the behaviourist theories is that the root causes of conflict and crisis are in the human nature and human behaviour Robert, ; William, ; Odoh, Hence, there is a strong correlation between intrapersonal conflict and the conflict that pervades the external social order.
Invariably, the central driving force is the stimulus-response proposition which suggests that humans possess either biological or psychological characteristics that would predispose us towards aggression. As a result, they identified the animal behaviour theory, instinct or innate theory, frustration- aggression theory, social learning theory, and social identity theory, to explain why conflict and crisis occur.
The animal behaviour theory asserts that human beings are part and parcel of the animal kingdom whose behaviour cannot be different from the rest of the animals especially on issues that involve such motivational factors as territoriality, dominance, sexuality, and survival Robert, , cited in Onwe, The social learning theory avers that conflict and crisis among individuals are learnt through the process of socialisation which affects the development of a personality William, , cited in Odoh, The frustration aggression theory portends that conflicts and crisis are caused when an actor frustrates or tries to frustrate the efforts of another towards achieving desired goals and objectives Okanya, ; Nweke, In line with the postulations of the micro theorists, conflict and crisis in school management are caused by motivations and material expectations, quest for dominance and survival needs, personality characteristics and the protection of identity needs, bad companionship, and the frustration of goal-oriented efforts.
In other words, the root causes of conflict and crisis stem from group competition and the pursuit of power and resources Horowitz, ; Otite, The balance of power theorists posit that conflicts and crisis are caused by the competition for positions of power, authority, and influence Rourke and Boyer, This postulation is expressly captured in the dictum that in social existence, human beings strive to be equal, equal to be superior, and that is the spirit that breeds revolution conflicts and crisis.
The decision making theory hold that conflict and crisis result from the clash of opinions and views among individuals or groups in the process of deliberations on vital issues Karen, ; while the game theory contends that conflict and crisis in human existence are the functions of competitions for resources that largely depend on the efficacy of applicable strategies and tactics to win or lose Karen, The enemy system theory on its part suggests groups of people have categorised themselves as distinct from others who should be seen as enemies always and everywhere Tajfel, Based on the expositions of the macro theories, one may be right to adduce that conflicts and crisis in school management arise as a result of competitions for positions of power, authority, and influence; divergent opinions over vital issues that require critical decisions; and deep hatred for particular individual or group whereas others are seen as friends.
Summary The causes of conflicts and crisis in school management revolve around status personality, identity, etc , power quest for dominance, positions of authority with the associated responsibilities , and resources financial benefits, material benefits, welfare packages etc.
Hence, in different schools and different times, conflicts and crisis in the management processes are variously caused by: i. Style of management authoritarian, dictatorial ii. Personality clash who is who status-wise? Identity needs and contests e. Discriminations, favouritism, and undue influences v. Interferences in the performance of duties and responsibilities vi.
Negligence of duty vii. Financial irresponsibility viii. Contests for positions of authority and responsibilities ix. Promotional and motivational factors x. Influence peddling xi. Misperceptions of motives, decisions, and actions xii. Differences in goals and differences in the perception of management realities. Inequitable distribution of welfare packages xiv.
Breach of collective agreements, and anti-union actions xvi. Cumbersome grievances and dispute procedure etc VI. Notably, the explanatory relevance of the different theories that offer explanations on the causes of coflicts and crisis in the area of school management largely depend on the contexts and circumstances. In other words, as schools and the management authorities are different, so are the causes of the associated conflicts and crisis.
Accordingly, the strategies for avoiding or resolving the conflicts and crisis also vary with places and times. References [1]. Burton, R. Hampshire and London: Macmillan Press limited. Burton, J. London: Macmillan. Coser, L. New York: Free Press. Davies, J. DeCenzo, D. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Duncan, W. Illinois: The Dryden Press. Ekundayo, H. Ozean Publication. Fabumi, M.
IV, No. Flippo, E. Hansfield, cited in Odoh, S. Enugu: JonesCommunications Publishers. Horowitz, D. Berkley: University of Carlifornia Press.
Alex Keya. A short summary of this paper. Download Download PDF. Translate PDF. It is a definite yes that in one time or another crisis may occur but how well are our organizations prepared, to deal with this form of problem when it occurs. According to Schar , she comes up with a series of questions like if a crisis happens who will be in charge of decision making and communication?
What if scandals that could ruin the organizations image in the public domain occurred what would be done to protect the organization? This then leads us to crisis response which is an approach to dealing with an event in a professional manner that addresses the critical needs of the time. The planning is designed to address the worst-case scenarios. The goal is to establish protocols and procedures to guide management decision-making, employee actions, and client expectations.
After all, crises can be fertile opportunities for learning and change if an organization is equipped with the right tools to handle them. There are two sides to managing any crisis: planning and response. Aktouf, Crisis and crisis management are normal and inevitable occurrences in organizations. Even with the need to excel, attain perfection and maintain an ethical code, something always goes wrong.
We are going to critically discuss crisis and how well to handle it or rather respond when it occurs. According to Regester. This means that the more organizations try to hide secrets of a crisis, the deeper the media will dig for them. Regester advises organization to tell it all, tell it fast and tell it truthfully.
Different crises call for different response strategies. Lerbinger identifies these types as: a Natural disasters b Technological crisis c Confrontational crisis d Crisis of Malevolence e Crisis of Organizational Misdeeds f Workplace violence g Rumors.
They are percent nature-oriented with dire results to life, organizational and personal property as well as the environment. Examples include earthquakes, floods, volcanic eruptions, landslides, storms and droughts. This usually comes from human use of science and technology. It usually occurs when human error or natural disasters disrupts the normal routine during technology applications. People can blame such technological mishaps to human manipulation while not heap a similar claim to natural crises.
Examples of such technological crises are industrial mishaps, oil spills and software failures. Such examples include boycotting products, picketing also known as holding demonstrations or protesting , blocking or occupying a building forcefully, resisting arrest or defying police and sit-ins that make claims to those in authority.
They can also seek to gain from it so as to destroy its functions or destabilize its operations. Crisis of skewed Management Values-occurs when a manager in the organization gives special attention to short-term economic gains from investors over wider social values of the organization and its shareholders. This practice goes against the interests of the customers, the community and employees of the organization. Crisis of Management Misconduct- It is usually on another scale of wrongdoing where deception, skewed values are part.
The managerial department of an organization decides to be deliberately illegal in its customer dealings and without a sense of morality in its operations. It defies all ethical codes of operation. The latter argued that the product contained genetically modified organisms GMO , after Unilever ran a successful campaign to promote Aromat. This declaration by the National Biosafety Authority resulted in a withdrawal of the product from supermarket shelves and retail stores countrywide.
Internet mishaps such as a poor internet connection, virus infection in computers resulting in slow computer functions password errors all end up in a crisis. The management of the organization should handle its personnel appropriately and not entertain a casual attitude at work. He stopped to watch black smoke pour from the place of impact—an awful lot of smoke, it seemed, for what was probably a small plane that had lost its way. Failure can result in serious harm to stakeholders, losses for an organization, or end its very existence.
Unlike the lengthy pre-planned solutions to predictable problems, which incidence managers use, the crisis manager has to work out the unexpected problem in an organization, with professionalism, care and creativity. This helps to avoid deepening the problem. In Kenya today, the active use of social media as a means to lobby for rights against injustice, for instance the Kenyans On Twitter hash tag KOT , has kept organizations and government departments on their toes as far as accountability is concerned Twitter, Crisis management is designed to prevent or lessen the damage a crisis can inflict on an organization and its stakeholders.
It is divided into three phases: a. Pre-crisis -: Prevention and preparation of a crisis b. Crisis response -: Crisis management team responds to a crisis c.
Post-crisis -: Crisis management team looks for ways to avoid another crisis from happening and how to handle it if it occurred. Effective communication during a crisis requires a good ability to communicate before, during and after the crisis.
Communication is very vital in an organization and when a crisis occurs, the art of communicating should be carefully looked at, to avoid misguidance or miscommunication, especially from the media and the public.
Communication requires coordination, cooperation and a great deal of internal communication. Everyone in the organization should have great communication skills to achieve organizational goals and objectives.
This will minimize the possibility of the crisis from occurring. In reference to Reynolds. They need to communicate about that crisis to their organization, various partners, and the public: Typically a crisis: 1. Occurs unexpectedly 2. Requires an immediate response 4. The content, form, and timing of the communication help reduce and contain the harm or make the situation worse.
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